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the State. Long ago both Marx and Bakunin—respectively the founders of scientific collectivism and practical anarchism—and especially Ludwig Gumplowicz, abandoned the Hegelian terminology and accepted that of Western Europe and this has been generally accepted everywhere. In this little book I have followed the Western European terminology.By the "State,"I do not mean the human aggregation which may perchance come about to be, or, as it properly should be. I mean by it that summation of privileges and dominating positions which are brought into being by extra economic power. And in contrast to this, I mean by Society, the totality of concepts of all purely natural relations and institutions between man and man, which will not be fully realized until the last remnant of the creations of the barbaric "ages of conquest and migration," has been eliminated from community life. Others may call any form of leadership and government or some other ideal, the "State." That is a matter of personal choice. It is useless to quarrel about definitions. But it might be well if those other thinkers were to understand that they have not controverted the sociologic idea of the "State," if a concept of the "State" grounded on a different basis, does not correspond to that which they have evolved. And they must guard themselves particularly against the [xv]danger of applying any definition other than that used in this book to those actual historical products which have hitherto been called "States," the essence, development, course and future of which must be explained by any true teaching or philosophy of the State. Franz Oppenheimer. Frankfort-on-Main, April 1922. [1] THE STATE? CHAPTER I? theories of the state? This treatise regards the State from the sociological standpoint only, not from the juristic—sociology, as I understand the word, being both a philosophy of history and a theory of economics. Our object is to trace the development of the State from its socio-psychological genesis up to its modern constitutional form; after that, we shall endeavor to present a well-founded prognosis concerning its future development. Since we shall trace only the State's inner, essential being,we need not concern ourselves with the external forms of law underwhich its international and intra-national life is hiumed. this treatise, in short, is a contribution to the philosophy of State development; [2]but only in so far as the law of development here traced from its generic form affects also the social problems common to all forms of the modern State. With this limitation of treatment in mind, we may at the outset dismiss all received doctrines of public law. Even a cursory examination of conventional theories of the State is sufficient to show that they furnish no explanation of its genesis, essence and purpose. These theories represent all possible shadings between all imaginable extremes. Rousseau derives the State from a social contract, while Carey ascribes its origin to a band of robbers. Plato and the followers of Karl Marx endow the State with omnipotence, making it the absolute lord over the citizen in all political and economic matters; while Plato even goes so far as to wish the state to regulate hiual relations. the manchester school, on the other hand, going to the opposite extreme of liberalism, would have the State exercise only needful police functions, and would thus logically have as a result a scientific anarchism which [3]must utterly exterminate the State. .